April 2001

For many years, the Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) was the only suitable battery for portable applications such as wireless communications and mobile computing. In 1990, the Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) and Lithium Ion (Li-ion) emerged, offering higher capacities. Both chemistries fought nose to nose, each claiming better performance and smaller sizes.

Which chemistry will be the true winner and what system will pave the way in the new millennium? The vote is for Li-ion, especially for portables with a small form factor.

The Li-ion is a low maintenance battery, an advantage that no other chemistry can claim. There is no memory and no scheduled cycling is required to prolong the battery’s life. In addition to high energy density and lightweight, the self-discharge is less than half compared to the NiCd and NiMH, making the Li-ion well suited for modern fuel gauge applications.

On the negative, the Li-ion is fragile and requires a protection circuit to maintain safe operation. The load current is moderate and charging must be done according to strict standards. In addition, the Li-ion is subject to aging, whether used or not.

History Pioneering work for the lithium battery began in 1912 by G. N. Lewis but it was not until the early 1970’s when the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the eighties, but failed due to safety problems.

Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest energy content. Rechargeable batteries using lithium metal as the negative electrodes (anode) are capable of providing both high voltage and excellent capacity, resulting in an extraordinary high energy density.

After much research on rechargeable Lithium batteries during the eighties, it was found that cycling alters the lithium electrode, thereby reducing its thermal stability and causing potential thermal run-away. If this occurs, the cell temperature quickly approaches melting point of the lithium, which results in a violent reaction. A large quantity of rechargeable lithium batteries sent to Japan had to be recalled in 1991 after a battery in a cellular phone released hot gases and inflicted burns to a man’s face.

Because of the inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, research shifted to a non-metallic lithium battery using lithium ions. Although slightly lower in energy density than lithium metal, the Li?ion is safe, provided certain precautions are met when charging and discharging. In 1991, the Sony Corporation commercialized the first Li?ion battery. Other manufacturers followed suit. Today, the Li?ion is the fastest growing and most promising battery chemistry.

Li-ion versions There are several types of Li-ion batteries that have emerged. Sony’s original version used coke as negative electrode (anode). Since 1997, most Li-ion, including Sony’s, has shifted to graphite. This electrode provides a flatter discharge voltage curve than coke and offers a sharp knee bend, followed by a rapid voltage drop before the discharge cut off (see Figure 1). As a result, the useful energy of the graphite system can be retrieved by discharging only to 3.0 volts per cell, whereas Sony’s coke version must be discharged to 2.5 volts to get the same performance.

Figure 1: Li?ion discharge characteristics. The graphite Li-ion only needs to discharge to 3.0V/cell, whereas the coke version must be discharged to 2.5V/cell to achieve similar performance.

For the positive electrode (cathode), two distinct chemistries have emerged. They are cobalt and manganese, also know as spinel. Whereas the cobalt has been in use longer, spinel is inherently safer and more forgiving if abused. Protection circuits can be simplified or even eliminated. Small prismatic spinel packs for mobile phones may only include a thermal fuse and temperature sensor. In addition to the added safety, the raw material cost for manganese is lower than cobalt.

As a trade-off, the spinel offers a slightly lower energy density, suffers capacity loss at temperature above 40ºC and ages quicker than cobalt. Figure 2 compares the advantages and disadvantages of the two chemistries.

Cobalt Manganese (Spinel) Energy density (Wh/kg) 140 1 120 1 Safety On overcharge, the cobalt electrode provides extra lithium, which can form into metallic lithium, causing a potential safety risk if not protected by a safety circuit. On overcharge, the manganese electrode runs out of lithium causing the cell only to get warm. Safety circuits can be eliminated for small 1 and 2 cell packs. Temperature Wide temperature range. Best suited for operation at elevated temperature. Capacity loss above +40°C. Not as durable at higher temperatures. Aging Short-term storage possible. Impedance increases with age. Newer versions offer longer storage. Slightly less than cobalt. Impedance changes little over the life of the cell. Due to continuous improvements, storage time is difficult to predict. Life Expectancy 300 cycles, 50% capacity at 500 cycles. May be shorter than cobalt. Cost Raw material relatively high; protection circuit adds to costs. Raw material 30% lower than cobalt. Cost advantage on simplified protection circuit.

Figure 2: Comparison of Cobalt and Manganese as positive electrodes. Manganese is inherently safer and more forgiving if abused but offers a slightly lower energy density. Manganese suffers capacity loss at temperature above 40°C and ages quicker than cobalt.

1 Based on present generation 18650 cells. The energy density tend to be lower for prismatic cells,

Chemicals and additives help to balance the critical trade-off between high energy density, long storage time, extended cycle life and safety. High energy densities can be achieved with relative ease. For example, adding more nickel in lieu of cobalt increases the ampere/hours rating and lowers the manufacturing cost but makes the cell less safe. While a start-up company may focus on high energy density to gain quick market acceptance, safety, cycle life and storage may be compromised. Reputable manufacturers, such as Sony, Panasonic, Sanyo and Moli place high importance on safety.

Li-ion cells cause less harm when disposed than lead or cadmium based batteries. Among the Li-ion battery family, the spinel is the friendliest in terms of disposal.

Charging the Li-ion battery The Li-ion charger is a voltage-limiting device and is similar to the lead acid battery charger. The main differences of the Li-ion charger are higher voltage per cell, tighter voltage tolerance and the absence of trickle or float charge at full charge.

Whereas the VRLA offers some flexibility in terms of voltage cut off, the manufacturers of Li-ion cells are very strict about the voltage choice. When first introduced, the charge voltage limit of the graphite system was 4.10 volts per cell. Although higher voltages deliver increased energy density, cell oxidation severely limited the service life in the early graphite cells if charged above the 4.10V/cell threshold. This effect has now been solved with chemical additives and most new Li-ion cells are now set to 4.20V. The tolerance on all Li-ion batteries is a tight +/- 0.05 volts per cell.

The charge time of all Li-ion batteries is about 3 hours at a 1C initial charge current. The battery remains cool during charge. Full charge is attained after the voltage reaches the upper voltage threshold and the current drops and levels off at about 3% of its nominal rating, or about 0.03C.

Increasing the charge current on a Li-ion charger does not shorten the charge time by much. Although the voltage peak is reached quicker with higher current, the topping charge will take longer. Figure 3 shows the voltage and current signature of a charger as the Li-ion cell passes through stage one and two.

Figure 3: Charge stages of a Li-ion Battery. Increasing the charge current on a Li?ion charger does not shorten the charge time by much. Although the voltage peak is reached quicker with higher current, the topping charge will take longer.

Claims of fast charging a Li-ion battery in one hour or less usually results in lower charge levels. Such a charger simply eliminates stage two and goes directly into ‘ready’ once the voltage threshold is reached at the end of stage one. The charge level at this point is about 70%. The topping charge typically takes twice as long as the initial charge.

No trickle charge is applied because the Li-ion is unable to absorb overcharge. Trickle charge could cause plating of metallic lithium, a condition that makes the cell unstable. Instead, a brief topping charge is applied to compensate for the small amount of self-discharge the battery and its protective circuit consume.

Depending on the charger and the self-discharge of the battery, a topping charge may be implemented once every 500 hours or 20 days. Typically, the charge kicks in when the open terminal voltage drops to 4.05 volts per cell and turns off when it reaches 4.20V/cell.

Protection circuit Commercial Li-ion battery packs contain redundant protection devices to assure safety under all circumstances. Typically, an FET opens if the charge voltage of any cell reaches 4.30V, and a fuse activates if the cell temperature approaches 90°C (194°F). In addition, a pressure switch in each cell permanently interrupts the charge current if a safe pressure threshold is exceeded, and internal voltage control circuits cut off the battery at low and high voltage points. Exceptions are made to prismatic and cylindrical spinel packs containing one or two cells only.

The Li-ion is typically discharged to 3 volts per cell. The lowest ‘low-voltage’ power cut-off is 2.5V/cell. During prolonged storage, however, a discharge below this voltage level is possible. Manufacturers recommend a ‘trickle’ charge to raise such a battery gradually back up into the ‘acceptable’ voltage window. Not all chargers are designed to apply a charge once a Li-ion battery has dipped below 2.5V/cell.

Some batteries feature an ultra-low voltage cutoff that permanently disconnects the pack if a cell dips below 1.5 volts. This precaution is done to prohibit recharge if a battery has dwelled in an illegal voltage state. A deep discharge causes copper plating, which can lead to short circuit in the cell.

Most manufactures do not sell the Li-ion cells by themselves but make them available in a battery pack, complete with protection circuit. This precaution is understandable when considering the danger of explosion and fire if the battery is charged and discharged beyond its safe limits.

A major concern arises if static electricity or a faulty charger has managed to destroy the battery’s protection circuit. Such damage often causes the solid-state switches to fuse to a permanent ON position without the user’s knowledge. A battery with a faulty protection circuit may function normally but does not provide the required safely. If charged beyond safe voltage limits with a poorly designed accessory charger, the battery may heat up, then bulge and in some cases vent with flame. Shorting such a battery can also be hazardous.

Analyzers for the Lithium Ion batteries In the past, battery analyzers were used to restore batteries affected by ‘memory’. With today’s nickel-free batteries, memory is no longer a problem and the emphasis of an analyzer is shifting to battery performance verification, quality control and quick-test.

Conventional wisdom says that a new battery always performs flawlessly. Yet many users have learned that a battery fresh from the shrink-wrap does not always meet the manufacturer's specifications. With a battery analyzer, all incoming batteries can be checked as part of a quality control procedure. In addition, warranty claims can be made if the capacity drops below the specified level at the end of the warranty period.

A typical life of a Li-ion is 300-500 discharge/charge cycles or two years from time of manufacturing. The loss of battery capacity occurs gradually and often without the knowledge of the user. Although fully charged, the battery eventually regresses to a point where it may hold less than half of its original capacity. The function of the battery analyzer is to identify these weak batteries and “weed’ them out.

A battery analyzer can also be used to troubleshoot the cause of short runtimes. The charger may not provide a full charge or the portable device may draw more current than expected. Many of today’s battery analyzers can simulate the load signature of a digital device and verify the runtime based on the available battery capacity.

An important feature of modern battery analyzers is its ability to read the internal battery resistance, a test that only takes a few seconds to complet. As part of natural aging, the internal resistance of a Li-ion gradually increases due to cell oxidation. The higher the resistance, the less energy the battery can deliver.

To utilize the OhmTest as a battery validation, it is essential to obtain a reference reading of a good battery with known performance. Because each battery type may be different, a reference reading will be required for each model.

A more reliable method of measuring the state-of-health of a battery is through quick-test methods. Cadex has developed a system that uses an inference algorithm to test battery capacities. The Quicktest algorithm is made battery specific by using a trend-learning algorithm that resembles the thinking process of the human brain.

The Cadex Quicktest can be performed with a charge level of between 20 and 90 percent. If the battery is insufficiently charged, or has too high a charge, the analyzer automatically applies the appropriate charge or discharge to bring the battery within testing range. Within this range, different charge levels do not affect the readings. The test lasts about two minutes and supports Li-ion/Polymer, NiMH and NiCd batteries.

The Cadex quick test is added to the Cadex 7200 and 7400 battery analyzers. These platforms feature interchangeable battery adapters that contain the battery configuration codes and matrix for the quick test.

Summary The Li-ion receives good grades in performance and reliability. Supply shortages have eased and prices have become competitive with nickel-based equivalents. As a result, more portable equipment is being fitted with the Li-ion battery.

The Li-ion has found a strong market niche with portable devices demanding small form factor. The most popular uses are mobile phones and laptop computers. Because of the aging aspect, the Li-ion is most suitable for applications with a hectic user pattern. Where the Li-ion falls short is on high current applications, such as power tools, heart defibrillators and two-way radios for public safety.

Another field where the Li-ion has proven less favorable is in applications that require only occasional battery use. On a laptop that is mostly powered by AC, for example, the Li-ion battery ages over time and the full benefit of the battery cannot be realized. High heat levels inside most laptops also cause the Li-ion to age prematurely. Field tests have revealed, however, that Li-ion is less affected by heat than NiMH.

The Lithium Ion Polymer systems are struggling to meet and surpass the performance of the Li-ion battery. High energy cost ratio limits the Li-ion Polymer to small portable devices, such as mobile phones. It is expected that once mass-produced, the Li-ion Polymer will be lower priced than the Li-ion because of simpler packaging.

This article contains excerpts from the second edition book entitled Batteries in a Portable World — A Handbook on Rechargeable Batteries for Non-Engineers. In the book, Mr. Buchmann evaluates the battery in everyday use and explains their strengths and weaknesses in laymen’s terms. The 300-page book is available from Cadex Electronics Inc. through book@cadex.com, tel. 604-231-7777 or most bookstores. For additional information on battery technology visit www.buchmann.ca.

About the Author Isidor Buchmann is the founder and CEO of Cadex Electronics Inc., in Richmond (Vancouver) British Columbia, Canada. Mr. Buchmann has a background in radio communications and has studied the behavior of rechargeable batteries in practical, everyday applications for two decades. The author of many articles and books on battery maintenance technology, Mr. Buchmann is a well-known speaker who has delivered technical papers and presentations at seminars and conferences around the world.

About the Company Cadex Electronics Inc. is a world leader in the design and manufacture of advanced battery analyzers and chargers. Their award-winning products are used to prolong battery life in wireless communications, emergency services, mobile computing, avionics, biomedical, broadcasting and defense. Cadex products are sold in over 100 countries.

Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Mr. Ulrich Von-Sacken, Ph.D., Mr. Mark Reid and Mr. Paul Craig of NEC Moli Energy (Canada) Ltd. for their comments and suggestions.